Sang

EXAMPLES OF INNOVATIVE AND CREATIVE LESBIAN RESEARCH

In her analysis of lesbian research, Hancock (1986) found that in the last 10 years there has been more emphasis on applied and theoretical areas (80%). She wonders what has happened to empirical research. Lesbian research is very much alive; it has taken on other forms. One major trend in lesbian research is the use of a more descriptive, phenomenological approach that allows the researcher to be "true" to her own experience (Adelman, 1986; Becker, 1988; Hunnisett, 1986; Krieger, 1985; Lewis, 1979; Sang, 1987; Warshow, 1987). Such research may be based on structured and unstructured interviews, questionnaires, observations of a group or an individual, or on a combination of these techniques. The use of a control group and formal statistical analysis may not be relevant or appropriate to the kind of questions being asked. Lesbian research is usually not couched in professional jargon and, therefore, serves a practical function within the lesbian community.

An excellent example of this kind of descriptive research is Hunnisett's (1986) phenomenological study of the experience of being in crisis in the lesbian community. She stresses the importance of capturing the participants' experience rather than imposing her world on them. The personal stories of each woman were the foundation for the study. After getting a feel for each woman's individual experience, a "map" was made for each individual and her relationship to the community. From this, a map was constructed that summarized all of the participants' relationships to the community. Hunnisett found that the lesbian community was perceived as an extended family system with support, validation, and closeness on the one hand, and the pressure to conform or the fear of judgment on the other hand. The lesbians in her study were also found to be concerned with balancing autonomy and intimacy in their relationships and in the community.

Two other studies that are illustrative of descriptive research are Long Time Passing: Lives of Older Lesbians (Adelman, 1986), which tells about the lives of older lesbians in their own voice, and Unbroken Ties: Lesbian Ex-lovers (Becker, 1988), a study based on interviews with 40 women from different backgrounds who described how they dealt with their relationship breakup.

Other ways that lesbians come to know themselves, which can also be considered alternative forms of research, are through oral histories, biographies, consciousness-raising groups, and grass-roots publications. In her collection of autobiographical essays, Joan Nestle (1987) described what it was like growing up a lesbian in New York City in the 1950s. She raised some important questions about roles in lesbian relationships.

Psychotherapists are also in a position to make observations and formulate meaningful research questions based on their intimate connections with their lesbian clients. For further information on what clinicians need to know to do research, please see Goering and Strauss (1987).

A BREAKDOWN BETWEEN THE ROLES OF PARTICIPANT AND EXPERIMENTER

Alternative researchers studying lesbian issues perceive research as a cooperative effort between who is conducting the research and who is being studied (Krieger, 1985, Hunnisett, 1986, Sowle, 1989). In my own study on middle-aged lesbians (Sang, 1987), I included with my essay-type questionnaire a proposal stating why I was studying this area and what I

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thought some of the issues were. In a sense, I was inviting my participants to collaborate with me. Sowle (1989), who is currently studying lesbian mothers with sons, provided her participants with her own research philosophy. She says the following:

I do not consider myself an "expert" on lesbian mothers, nor am I trying to prove a preconceived hypothesis about lesbian mothering. I approach the subject as an exploratory journey into the life experiences of other lesbian mothers of sons, as well as my own experiences. (Appendix A)

Both Hunnisett (1986) and Krieger (1985) went over the interviews with each participant to ensure that they had correctly understood what was meant. It is assumed that each participant is an "expert" on herself.

Alternative researchers recognize the importance of using their own experience in guiding their work but are aware simultaneously of the fact that their observations are colored by their own biases and preconceived notions. Hunnisett used her own experience of being in crisis within the lesbian community to ask appropriate research questions. She, however, stressed the need for a balance between the intuitive and creative response to the participant and the self-discipline required in distancing, so as not to impose her own expectations and assumptions on the individual she was studying. Kreiger (1985) described a similar use of self in her research of a midwestern lesbian community. Before she could understand her community, she had to understand herself. Her process consisted of analyzing her own feelings, (i.e., her fears and biases before and during her interviews with her 78 participants).

ROLE OF THE LESBIAN COMMUNITY

IN RESEARCHING ITSELF

Within the so-called lesbian community, we are grappling with certain issues and problems in our lives. There seems to be a strong sense of sharing and working together, even though our points of view are not necessarily the same. It never ceases to amaze me how fast lesbian researchers get back to me when I request a copy of their work. The willingness of lesbians to become involved as participants for research should also be noted. We must look not only to individual roles of conducting research but also to the role that the lesbian community plays in researching itself.

Because much of this new and more meaningful work is taking place at a grass-roots level, such as through lesbian and feminist conferences, the sharing of unpublished papers, and through alternative publications, it is not always possible for other researchers in this area to know what is going on. The "Lesbian Research Consortium" grew out of a need to keep one another informed as to who is doing what and as a means of helping researchers recruit diverse lesbian participants from all parts of the country, as well as to produce more relevant research.

RESEARCH THAT IS RELEVANT

TO LESBIAN LIFE-STYLES

A body of research has developed over the years that can enable lesbian women to improve the quality of their lives. Such research provides lesbians with information as to who they are from their own perspective. This research also serves to document oppression and to suggest effective strategies for coping with it. In addition, research that meets the needs of the lesbian

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community addresses practical issues such as relationships, sexuality, and diversity among lesbians (e.g., lesbian mothers and minority lesbians). Relevant research also describes and defines lesbian values and culture. There is considerable overlap between these areas.

Developmental research is one way that lesbians come to know themselves. For example, how do lesbians age? Adelman (1988) addressed some of the fears lesbians have about growing old that are based on stereotypes. Contrary to popular belief, she found that lesbians have unique and creative ways to deal with aging, just as they cope creatively with other aspects of life. In a recent study on midlife lesbians, Warshow (1987) found that women who have developed a positive lesbian identity have had mother-daughter relationships that have changed from negative to positive over time.

A few examples of the varied research that documents the effects of oppression are as follows: Pagelow (1980) found that both single heterosexual and single lesbian mothers reported discrimination with respect to child custody, housing, and employment; the degree of perceived oppression, however, was greater for lesbian mothers than for heterosexual mothers. Hall (1986) described the stresses and coping strategies of lesbians employed by large corporations. Antigay attitudes forced lesbians living in a rural community to receive most of their support from one another (D'Augelli, Collins, & Hart, 1987). Sophie (1982) reported that social support and a positive philosophy were necessary for the development of a positive lesbian self-identity.

Other significant contributions to our understanding of lesbian life-styles were found in such studies as Hidalgo's (1984) research on 300 Puerto Rican lesbians living in the United States. She found that the acceptance of lesbians in the Puerto Rican family has improved; however, Puerto Rican lesbians continue to experience more overt racism from the Anglo gay community. Based on her research on more than 1,000 lesbians, Loulan (1988) found that lesbians often must make a conscious effort to have sex. She introduced the important concept of "willingness" (i.e., lesbians can choose to have sex without waiting for desire or excitement).

IMPLICATIONS FOR TRAINING AND EDUCATION Although stereotyped and antiquated views about lesbians and gay men are becoming less characteristic of academic and clinical settings, misconceptions about this population are still prevalent. Ideally, all researchers, counselors, psychotherapists, and psychoanalysts should be required to take at least one course that exposes them to alternative thinking in this area. It is apparent that practitioners working within most psychoanalytic frameworks, who provide direct services, are a group that is most in need of re-education. As Carlson (1985) has pointed out, however, the stigma of being connected with lesbian and gay male issues prevents qualified professionals from providing their expertise in research or training within most institutions. Until exposure to new ways of looking at lesbian and gay male life-styles becomes mandatory for all disciplines, knowledgeable professionals within the lesbian community may have to find ways of providing workshops and educational materials to these programs and institutes.

CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The thrust in lesbian research over the last 10 years has been to explore issues that have relevance to lesbian life-styles, such as

Lesbian Research, Theory, and Education

homophobia, relationships, lesbian mothers, and aging. Lesbian researchers are spending less time on research that proves that they are as emotionally adjusted as heterosexual women; such comparisons, however, continue to be made by mainstream psychology (Hancock, 1986).

The general public is in need of more information about lesbian and gay male life-styles. Nevertheless, this should not be our first or only priority. There is still much more that we have to learn about ourselves. For good lesbian and gay male scholarship to develop, we need more funding and more alternative and efficient ways of communicating with one another. We also need to erase the stigma of being associated with lesbian and gay research.

One of the lessons that we have learned through our study of lesbian research is that in the name of "science," a group of people were labeled disturbed, despite the fact that there was no evidence to substantiate this position. This realization has lead many lesbians to approach research in a more questioning, open, and egalitarian manner. For the time being, it also makes sense for lesbians to look at themselves through their own eyes as opposed to looking at existing theoretical models that are often sexist and homophobic.

In my analysis of lesbian research, it became clear to me just how much jargon and terminology determines what and how something is studied. But, even more important, it became clear just how much jargon prevents researchers and theoreticians from communicating with one another. Individuals of like jargon talk only to one another and make assumptions, even though the world has changed for others. Do we want a psychology based on such isolation?

REFERENCES

Adelman, M. (1986). Long time passing: Lives of older lesbians. Boston: Alyson.

Adelman, M. (1988). Quieting our fears: Lesbians and aging. Outlook: National Lesbian and Gay Quarterly, 1, 78-81.

Becker, C. (1988). Unbroken ties: Lesbian ex-lovers. Boston: Alyson. Bell, A., & Weinberg, M. (1978). Homosexualities: A study of diversity among men and women. New York: Simon & Schuster. Bergler, E. (1956). Homosexuality, disease or way of life? New York: Collier Books.

Bernstein, A., & Warner, G. (1984). Women treating women. New York: International Universities Press.

Burch, B. (1985). Another perspective on merger in lesbian relationships. In L. Rosewater & L. Walker (Eds.), Handbook of feminist therapy (pp. 100-109). New York: Springer.

Caprio, F. (1954). Female homosexuality: A modern study of lesbianism. New York: Grove Press.

Carlson, H. (1985, August). Employment issues for researchers on lesbian and gay issues. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA. Chodorow, N. (1978). The reproduction of mothering. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Conger, J. (1975). Proceedings of the American Psychological Association, incorporated, for the year 1974: Minutes of the Annual Meeting of the Council of Representatives. American Psychologist, 30, 620-651. D'Augelli, A., Collins, C., & Hart, M. (1987). Social support patterns of lesbian women in a rural helping network. Journal of Rural Community Psychology, 8, 12-22. Denmark, F., Russo, N., Frieze, I., & Sechzer, J. (1988). Guidelines for avoiding sexism in psychological research. American Psychologist, 43, 582-585.

Elise, D. (1986). Lesbian couples: The implications of sex differences in separation-individuation. Psychotherapy, 23, 305–310.

Espin, O. (1987). Issues of identity in the psychology of Latina lesbians. In The Boston Lesbian Psychologies Collective (Eds.), Lesbian psychologies: Explorations and challenges (pp. 35-51). Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

Freedman, M. (1975). Homosexuals may be healthier than straights. Psychology Today, 28-32.

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